GLOSSARY

This glossary is intended to assist students in understanding commonly used terms and concepts when reading, interpreting, and evaluating scholarly research in the philosophy of science.

Abduction - inference to the best explanation.

Abstract idea - a general idea, which exists in the mind rather than in the external world.

Accuracy - a term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target population and the sample.

Aggregate - a total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is an aggregate of the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the county. As a verb, it refers to total data from smaller units into a large unit.

Agnosticism - The belief that one does not, or cannot, know ultimate reality (especially God).

Ampliative argument - any argument that is not deductively valid. The term refers to the fact that the conclusion of such argument goes beyond, or amplifies upon, the premises.

Argument - a list of statements, one of which is the conclusion and the rest of which are the premises. Anonymity - a research condition in which no one, including the researcher, knows the identities of research participants.

Antinomy - A contradiction made up of a thesis and antithesis.

A posteriori - In epistemology, knowledge derived from, or posterior to (comes after), five sense experience.

A priori - In epistemology, knowledge which is acquired prior to, or independently of, five sense experience.

Auxiliary assumptions - the assumptions made about particular systems, like the number of planets, the number of epicycles in Ptolemaic or Copernican astronomy, the absence of frictional forces in Newtonian mechanics, or in Einsteinian cosmology, the assumption that the mass in the universe is spread evenly in all directions. These are different from the values of adjustable parameters, which are inferred from the observational data.

Baseline - a control measurement carried out before an experimental treatment.

Bayesian Learning - A procedure whereby old probabilities, called prior probabilities, are updated in light of observational evidence, to new values, called posterior probabilities. The posterior probability is equal to prior probability conditional on the evidence. Let H be a hypothesis, and let Pr(H) be the prior probability of H. Let E be the new evidence. Then the posterior probability of H is equal to Pr(H/E).

Bayesianism - a form of probabilism. Its comes in a number of varieties. Objective Bayesianism assumes that probabilities can be assigned objectively, as inductive probabilities. Subjective Bayesianism assumes that all probabilities are epistemic or personal.

Bayesianism, Simple - a possible form of Bayesianism that is a combination of inductive logic and eliminative induction. It is subjective in the sense that it recognizes that the list of hypotheses from which the elimination takes place will vary from person to person, but it is objective in its idea of assigning an equal initial probability, or prior probability, to those hypotheses. When combined with the standard theory of Bayesian learning, it runs into difficulties, although this does not prove that all forms of Bayesianism run into the same difficulties.

Beliefs - ideas, doctrines, tenets, etc. that are accepted as true on grounds which are not immediately susceptible to rigorous proof.

Bias - a loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in research via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can also occur at other stages in research, such as while interviewing, in the design of questions, or in the way data are analyzed and presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be representative of, or generalizable to, a wider population.

Case Study - the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular participant or small group, frequently including data derived from the subjects themselves.

Causal Hypothesis - a statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the dependent variable in some way.

Causal Relationship - the relationship established that shows that an independent variable, and nothing else, causes a change in a dependent variable. It also establishes how much of a change is shown in the dependent variable.

Causality - the relation between cause and effect.

Claim - a statement, similar to a hypothesis, which is made in response to the research question and that is affirmed with evidence based on research.

Classification - ordering of related phenomena into categories, groups, or systems according to characteristics or attributes.

Cluster Analysis - a method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait are grouped together. The data is collected in a way that allows the data collector to group data according to certain characteristics.

Cohort Analysis - group by group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical factor in common to each group. Group members share a particular characteristic [e.g., born in a given year] or a common experience [e.g., entering a college at a given time].

Conditional probability - the probability that an event will occur, given that one or more other events have occurred.

Confidentiality - a research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows the identities of the participants in a study. It refers to the treatment of information that a participant has disclosed to the researcher in a relationship of trust and with the expectation that it will not be revealed to others in ways that violate the original consent agreement, unless permission is granted by the participant.

Confirmability Objectivity - the findings of the study could be confirmed by another person conducting the same study.

Construct - refers to any of the following: something that exists theoretically but is not directly observable; a concept developed [constructed] for describing relations among phenomena or for other research purposes; or, a theoretical definition in which concepts are defined in terms of other concepts.

Construct Validity - seeks an agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring device, such as observation.

Constructivism - the idea that reality is socially constructed. It is the view that reality cannot be understood outside of the way humans interact and that the idea that knowledge is constructed, not discovered. Constructivists believe that learning is more active and self-directed than either behaviorism or cognitive theory would postulate.

Content: The content of a theory refers to what the theory says, or deductively entails. E.g., the predictive content of a theory is the set of predictions that it deductively entails.

Content Analysis - the systematic, objective, and quantitative description of the manifest or latent content of print or nonprint communications.

Control Group - the group in an experimental design that receives either no treatment or a different treatment from the experimental group. This group can thus be compared to the experimental group.

Controlled Experiment - an experimental design with two or more randomly selected groups [an experimental group and control group] in which the researcher controls or introduces the independent variable and measures the dependent variable at least two times [pre- and post-test measurements].

Correlation - a common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r, that measures the degree of relationship between pairs of interval variables in a sample. The range of correlation is from - 1.00 to zero to +1.00. Also, a non-cause and effect relationship between two variables.

Covariate - a product of the correlation of two related variables times their standard deviations. Used in true experiments to measure the difference of treatment between them.

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Credibility - a researcher's ability to demonstrate that the object of a study is accurately identified and described based on the way in which the study was conducted.

Critical Theory - an evaluative approach to social science research, associated with Germany's neo­Marxist “Frankfurt School,” that aims to criticize as well as analyze society, opposing the political orthodoxy of modern communism. Its goal is to promote human emancipatory forces and to expose ideas and systems that impede them.

Data - factual information [as measurements or statistics] used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation.

Data Mining - the process of analyzing data from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information, often to discover patterns and/or systematic relationships among variables.

Data Quality - this is the degree to which the collected data [results of measurement or observation] meet the standards of quality to be considered valid [trustworthy] and reliable [dependable].

Deduction - the process of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises.

Deductively valid - an argument is deductively valid if and only if it is impossible that its conclusion is false while its premises are true.

Deductive - a form of reasoning in which conclusions are formulated about particulars from general or universal premises.

Demarcation problem - the problem of saying what is scientific and what is not.

Dependability - being able to account for changes in the design of the study and the changing conditions surrounding what was studied.

Dependent Variable - a variable that varies due, at least in part, to the impact of the independent variable. In other words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent variable. For example, in the variables “gender” and “academic major,” academic major is the dependent variable, meaning that your major cannot determine whether you are male or female, but your gender might indirectly lead you to favor one major over another.

Deviation - the distance between the mean and a particular data point in a given distribution.

Discourse Community - a community of scholars and researchers in a given field who respond to and communicate to each other through published articles in the community's journals and presentations at conventions.

Discrete Variable - a variable that is measured solely in whole units, such as, gender and number of siblings.

Distribution - the range of values of a particular variable.

Effect Size - the amount of change in a dependent variable that can be attributed to manipulations of the independent variable. A large effect size exists when the value of the dependent variable is strongly influenced by the independent variable. It is the mean difference on a variable between experimental and control groups divided by the standard deviation on that variable of the pooled groups or of the control group alone.

Eliminative induction - a deductively valid argument that states that one of a finite list of theories, models, or hypotheses, is true, then states that all but one of them is false, and then concludes that the remaining one is true.

Empirical Research - the process of developing systematized knowledge gained from observations that are formulated to support insights and generalizations about the phenomena being researched.

Empiricism - The belief that the source of all knowledge is five sense experience. All knowledge of actually existing things is acquired through five sense experience. Contrasted with Rationalism.

Epistemology - concerns knowledge construction; asks what constitutes knowledge and how knowledge is validated.

Ethics - The branch or field of philosophy concerned with moral values and human conduct.

Expectancy Effect - any unconscious or conscious cues that convey to the participant in a study how the researcher wants them to respond. Expecting someone to behave in a particular way has been shown to promote the expected behavior. Expectancy effects can be minimized by using

standardized interactions with subjects, automated data-gathering methods, and double blind protocols.

External Validity - the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable.

Factor Analysis - a statistical test that explores relationships among data. The test explores which variables in a data set are most related to each other. In a carefully constructed survey, for example, factor analysis can yield information on patterns of responses, not simply data on a single response. Larger tendencies may then be interpreted, indicating behavior trends rather than simply responses to specific questions.

Fallibilism - a philosophical doctrine that holds that scientific knowledge is never complete, is always subject to revision, invariably vulnerable and may turn out to be false.

Falsification - the process of proving a hypothesis false.

Falsificationism - epistemological approach which holds that scientific testing can only falsify but can never confirm theories or hypothesis.

Field Studies - academic or other investigative studies undertaken in a natural setting, rather than in laboratories, classrooms, or other structured environments.

Focus Groups - small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining specific topics or problems, including possible options or solutions. Focus groups usually consist of 4-12 participants, guided by moderators to keep the discussion flowing and to collect and report the results.

Framework - the structure and support that may be used as both the launching point and the on-going guidelines for investigating a research problem.

Generalizability - the extent to which research findings and conclusions conducted on a specific study to groups or situations can be applied to the population at large.

Grounded Theory - practice of developing other theories that emerge from observing a group. Theories are grounded in the group's observable experiences, but researchers add their own insight into why those experiences exist.

Humanism - The view that "mankind is the measure of all things." Something's value or significance is measured by its relationship to mankind.

Hypothesis - a tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship between variables.

Hypothetico-deductivism - any view of science in which theories are hypothesized, and then tested by deduction. The hypothesizing stage of the process (the context of discovery, or invention) is viewed as a question of psychology. The deductive stage of the process (the context of justification) is when predictions are made from the theory and compared to experience. This is the main subject of the philosophy of science. It is controversial whether the two contexts can be neatly separated in this way.

Idealization - a model obtained from a theory using auxiliary assumptions that are known to be false, such as "there is no friction." Another example is the assumption that the mass of the universe is spread evenly in all directions in space originally used in 'big-bang' models of how the universe evolved.

Independent Variable - the conditions of an experiment that are systematically manipulated by the researcher. A variable that is not impacted by the dependent variable, and that itself impacts the dependent variable. In the earlier example of "gender" and "academic major," (see Dependent Variable) gender is the independent variable.

Induction, inductive reasoning - the process of deriving general principles from particular facts or instances.

Inductive - a form of reasoning in which a generalized conclusion is formulated from particular instances.

Inductive Analysis - a form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a researcher using inductive analysis starts with answers, but formulates questions throughout the research process.

Internal Consistency - the extent to which all questions or items assess the same characteristic, skill, or quality.

Internal Validity - the rigor with which the study was conducted [e.g., the study's design, the care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what was and was not measured]. It 584

is also the extent to which the designers of a study have taken into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they explore. In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of these definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity.

Logic - The study of the principles of correct thinking. The science that evaluates thinking and argumentation. Considered a major branch or field of philosophy.

Logically equivalent models: Also, equivalent models - two models that make all the same assertions, including theoretical assertions.

Margin of Error - the permittable or acceptable deviation from the target or a specific value. The allowance for slight error or miscalculation or changing circumstances in a study.

Materialism - The metaphysical view that all reality consists of material or physical entities with their physical properties.

Measurement - process of obtaining a numerical description of the extent to which persons, organizations, or things possess specified characteristics.

Meta-Analysis - an analysis combining the results of several studies that address a set of related hypotheses.

Methodology - a theory or analysis of how research does and should proceed.

Methods - systematic approaches to the conduct of an operation or process. It includes steps of procedure, application of techniques, systems of reasoning or analysis, and the modes of inquiry employed by a discipline.

Mixed-Methods - a research approach that uses two or more methods from both the quantitative and qualitative research categories. It is also referred to as blended methods, combined methods, or methodological triangulation.

Modeling - the creation of a physical or computer analogy to understand a particular phenomenon. Modeling helps in estimating the relative magnitude of various factors involved in a phenomenon. A successful model can be shown to account for unexpected behavior that has been observed, to predict certain behaviors, which can then be tested experimentally, and to demonstrate that a given theory cannot account for certain phenomenon.

Models - representations of objects, principles, processes, or ideas often used for imitation or emulation.

Natural sciences - sciences that have as their object of study the natural world and include physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology and biology.

Naturalistic Observation - observation of behaviors and events in natural settings without experimental manipulation or other forms of interference.

Norm - the norm in statistics is the average or usual performance. For example, students usually complete their high school graduation requirements when they are 18 years old. Even though some students graduate when they are younger or older, the norm is that any given student will graduate when he or she is 18 years old.

Null Hypothesis - the proposition, to be tested statistically, that the experimental intervention has "no effect," meaning that the treatment and control groups will not differ as a result of the intervention. Investigators usually hope that the data will demonstrate some effect from the intervention, thus allowing the investigator to reject the null hypothesis.

Ontology - a discipline of philosophy that explores the science of what is, the kinds and structures of objects, properties, events, processes, and relations in every area of reality.

Panel Study - a longitudinal study in which a group of individuals is interviewed at intervals over a period of time.

Paradigm - what Kuhn later termed the disciplinary matrix consisting of the background theory, or theories, methods, values, and exemplars used by a particular scientific community.

Participant - individuals whose physiological and/or behavioral characteristics and responses are the object of study in a research project.

Peer-Review - the process in which the author of a book, article, or other type of publication submits his or her work to experts in the field for critical evaluation, usually prior to publication. This is standard procedure in publishing scholarly research.

Phenomenology - a qualitative research approach concerned with understanding certain group behaviors from that group's point of view.

Philosophy - critical examination of the grounds for fundamental beliefs and analysis of the basic concepts, doctrines, or practices that express such beliefs.

Philosophy of science - a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science.

Policy - governing principles that serve as guidelines or rules for decision making and action in a given area.

Policy Analysis - systematic study of the nature, rationale, cost, impact, effectiveness, implications, etc., of existing or alternative policies, using the theories and methodologies of relevant social science disciplines.

Positivism - a doctrine in the philosophy of science, positivism argues that science can only deal with observable entities known directly to experience. The positivist aims to construct general laws, or theories, which express relationships between phenomena. Observation and experiment is used to show whether the phenomena fit the theory.

Predictive Measurement - use of tests, inventories, or other measures to determine or estimate future events, conditions, outcomes, or trends.

Principal Investigator - the scientist or scholar with primary responsibility for the design and conduct of a research project.

Probabilism - the doctrine that probability is a sufficient basis for belief and action, since certainty in knowledge is unattainable. See also, Bayesianism.

Probability - the chance that a phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure, it is shown as p [the "p" factor].

Questionnaire - structured sets of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather information, attitudes, or opinions.

Random Sampling - a process used in research to draw a sample of a population strictly by chance, yielding no discernible pattern beyond chance. Random sampling can be accomplished by first numbering the population, then selecting the sample according to a table of random numbers or using a random-number computer generator. The sample is said to be random because there is no regular or discernible pattern or order. Random sample selection is used under the assumption that sufficiently large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a distribution comparable to that of the population from which the sample is drawn. The random assignment of participants increases the probability that differences observed between participant groups are the result of the experimental intervention.

Rationalism - broadly speaking, the epistemological view that stresses reason as the test of truth. In a strict sense, the belief that at least some knowledge is acquired independent of sense experience.

Relativism - The belief that no absolutes exist (in truth and/or ethics). Truth and morality vary from person to person, time to time, circumstance to circumstance.

Reliability - the degree to which a measure yields consistent results. If the measuring instrument [e.g., survey] is reliable, then administering it to similar groups would yield similar results. Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. An unreliable indicator cannot produce trustworthy results.

Representative Sample - sample in which the participants closely match the characteristics of the population, and thus, all segments of the population are represented in the sample. A representative sample allows results to be generalized from the sample to the population.

Rigor - degree to which research methods are scrupulously and meticulously carried out in order to recognize important influences occurring in an experimental study.

Sample - the population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to select a "sample population" that is considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. In studies that use inferential statistics to analyze results or which are designed to be generalizable, sample size is critical, generally the larger the number in the sample, the higher the likelihood of a representative distribution of the population.

Sampling Error - the degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those that would be obtained from the entire population, because of random error in the selection of respondent and the corresponding reduction in reliability.

Saturation - a situation in which data analysis begins to reveal repetition and redundancy and when new data tend to confirm existing findings rather than expand upon them.

Scientific method - the mode of generating knowledge, i.e., it is the logical and rational order of steps by which scientists come to conclusions about the world around them.

Semantics - the relationship between symbols and meaning in a linguistic system. Also, the cuing system that connects what is written in the text to what is stored in the reader's prior knowledge. Social sciences - sciences that study specifically human or social world and include psychology, sociology, anthropology and economics.

Sound argument - an argument that is deductively valid and has all its premises true.

Standard Deviation - a measure of variation that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean; it is determined by taking the square root of the average of the squared deviations in a given distribution. It can be used to indicate the proportion of data within certain ranges of scale values when the distribution conforms closely to the normal curve.

Statistical Analysis - application of statistical processes and theory to the compilation, presentation, discussion, and interpretation of numerical data.

Statistical Bias - characteristics of an experimental or sampling design, or the mathematical treatment of data, that systematically affects the results of a study so as to produce incorrect, unjustified, or inappropriate inferences or conclusions.

Statistical Significance - the probability that the difference between the outcomes of the control and experimental group are great enough that it is unlikely due solely to chance. The probability that the null hypothesis can be rejected at a predetermined significance level [0.05 or 0.01].

Statistical Tests - researchers use statistical tests to make quantitative decisions about whether a study's data indicate a significant effect from the intervention and allow the researcher to reject the null hypothesis. That is, statistical tests show whether the differences between the outcomes of the control and experimental groups are great enough to be statistically significant. If differences are found to be statistically significant, it means that the probability [likelihood] that these differences occurred solely due to chance is relatively low. Most researchers agree that a significance value of.05 or less [i.e., there is a 95% probability that the differences are real] sufficiently determines significance.

Testing - the act of gathering and processing information about individuals' ability, skill, understanding, or knowledge under controlled conditions.

Theory - a general explanation about a specific behavior or set of events that is based on known principles and serves to organize related events in a meaningful way. A theory is not as specific as a hypothesis.

Treatment - the stimulus given to a dependent variable.

Trend Samples - method of sampling different groups of people at different points in time from the same population.

Triangulation - a multi-method or pluralistic approach, using different methods in order to focus on the research topic from different viewpoints and to produce a multi-faceted set of data. Also used to check the validity of findings from any one method.

Unit of Analysis - the basic observable entity or phenomenon being analyzed by a study and for which data are collected in the form of variables.

Validity - the degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. A method can be reliable, consistently measuring the same thing, but not valid.

Variable - any characteristic or trait that can vary from one person to another [race, gender, academic major] or for one person over time [age, political beliefs].

Weighted Scores - scores in which the components are modified by different multipliers to reflect their relative importance.

⁸ Формулировки, эквивалентные только что приведенной, неоднократно выдвигались в качестве критерия осмысленности предложений (а не критерия демаркации, применяемого к теоретическим системам) после выхода в свет этой моей книги даже теми критиками, которые с пренебрежением отнеслись к моему критерию фальсифицируемости. Однако нетрудно увидеть, что в качестве критерия демаркации настоящая формулировка эквивалентна фальсифицируемости. Действительно, если базисное высказывание Ъг не следует из 61, но следует из конъюнкции Ь1 с теорией 1 (что и утверждает настоящая формулировка), то это равносильно утверждению о том, что конъюнкция Ь1 с отрицанием &2 противоречит теории 1. Конъюнкция же Ь1 с отрицанием Ь| является базисным высказыванием (см. разд. 28). Таким образом, наш критерий требует существования фальсифицирующего базисного высказывания, то есть требует фальсифицируемости точно в моем смысле (см. также прим. *17 в гл. X). Однако в качестве критерия значения (или «слабой верифицируемое™») он непригоден по различным причинам. Во-первых, согласно этому критерию, отрицания некоторых осмысленных высказываний оказались бы бессмысленными. Во-вторых, конъюнкция осмысленного высказывания и «бессмысленного псевдопредложения» оказалась бы осмысленной, что также абсурдно. Если теперь мы обратим эти два возражения против нашего критерия демаркации, то оба они окажутся безобидными. Что касается первого, то см. разд. 15, особенно прим. *16. Что же касается второго возражения, то эмпирические теории (такие, как ньютоновская) могут содержать и «метафизические» элементы. Однако их нельзя устранить с помощью раз и навсегда установленного правила, хотя если бы нам удалось представить теорию в виде конъюнкции проверяемой и непроверяемой частей, то мы, конечно, знали бы, что можем теперь устранить один из ее метафизических компонентов. Предшествующий абзац этого примечания можно считать иллюстрацией еще одного методологическосго правила (см. конец прим. *10 в гл. X): после критики конкурирующей теории 310

¹¹ Эта ссылка на принятые базисные высказывания может, как кажется, скрывать в себе бесконечный регресс. Проблема состоит в следующем. Поскольку некоторая гипотеза фальсифицируется посредством